Identificador: TDX:260
Autors: Todorov Trifonov, Trifon
Resum:
Photonic crystals are artificially created materials that can do to photons what an ordinary semiconductor does to electrons: that is to say, they can exhibit a photonic band gap, a situation in which photons with certain energies cannot propagate inside the crystal, regardless of polarization and propagation direction. The photonic band gap is therefore likely to be the true optical analog of the fundamental gap of a semiconductor. Since their invention in 1987, photonic crystals have triggered considerable interest because of their unusual optical properties. The unique properties of photonic crystals also led to their study being recognized as a new and major field of optoelectronics.<br/>Macroporous silicon, with its high dielectric contrast, very high aspect ratios and full compatibility with the silicon microelectronic industry is an excellent model system for studying the optical properties of two-dimensional and even three-dimensional photonic crystals. Besides, macroporous silicon has been shown to have several unique uses in many other fields, like electronics, micromachining, gas sensing and biotechnology. Research into macroporous silicon is continuously growing, prompted by its enormous potential for applications.<br/>The work presented in this thesis deals with two subjects: photonic band structure simulations and analysis of 2D photonic crystals, and the fabrication of macroporous silicon structures suitable for application as 2D infrared photonic crystals.<br/>Since many potential applications of photonic crystals are based on their photonic band gaps, it is of interest to design photonic crystals with an absolute band gap that is as large as possible. In this thesis we describe a way to enlarge the absolute photonic band gap, showing the role that symmetry plays in designing optimal photonic structures. We have examined how reducing symmetry by inserting additional elements into the lattice unit cell or by changing the shape of the scatterers alters the dispersion behavior of the TMand TE-polarization modes in 2D photonic crystals. Our goal was to maximize the absolute PBG width by breaking the symmetry of the simple square and triangular lattices and thus to construct new structures, the so-called hybrid lattices. Using the FDTD method for photonic band structure calculations, we performed a detailed numerical analysis of the photonic dispersion relation in 2D hybrid lattices that consist of air holes drilled in silicon.<br/>For square lattices, the symmetry reduction approach has been successfully applied to maximize the absolute PBG width. In the case of square lattices of circular air rods, the inclusion of an additional rod increases the absolute PBG threefold. For the case of square lattices of square air rods, the rotation of the rods plays a critical role in the opening of an absolute PBG. No absolute PBG was found if the square rods were not rotated. The size of the absolute PBG is improved most significantly by a combination of the inclusion of an additional rod and the rotation of square rods. Moreover, a new absolute PBG is generated that persists over a wide range of rotation angles and filling fractions, which are far from the closed-packed condition. This greatly favors the fabrication of photonic crystals.<br/>The largest absolute PBG is the one for the triangular lattice of circular air rods.<br/>Our results have shown that modifying the triangular structure by adding interstitial rods or using square rods (even though the rods are rotated) is not a good way of achieving a larger absolute PBG, at least for the special case of air/silicon structures. Adding more rods to the lattice unit cell cannot further enlarge the absolute PBG width.<br/>We have made a detailed quantitative analysis of the absolute PBGs in 2D triangular and honeycomb lattices considering that there is an interfacial (shell) layer between the rods and the background dielectric matrix. This interfacial layer may be the unwanted result of the fabrication process itself or created intentionally. The properties of the photonic gaps are strongly affected by the thickness and the dielectric constant of the shell layer. The results of band structure simulations show that for structures consisting of air rods embedded in a dielectric background this layer reduces the absolute photonic gap.<br/>For structures consisting of dielectric rods in air, however, an interfacial layer can yield larger photonic gaps if the dielectric constant of the layer is greater than that of the rods.<br/>This provides further flexibility in the practical realization of such 2D photonic crystals.<br/>For example, in certain cases we may not be able to obtain dielectric rods of the required diameter or of the particular material we need because of technological limitations.<br/>However, we are enabled to grow the rods of materials with lower dielectric constants, for which a well-developed technology exists. The rods can then be covered with the required dielectric by deposition, thus achieving almost the same gap properties as those of the ideal shell-less structure.<br/>We have developed an electrochemical etching set-up for fabricating 2D periodic structures based on macroporous silicon formation. We have also made a detailed study of how the electrochemical etching parameters influence the pore morphology. Straight and stable macropores can only be etched if all parameters of the etching process (doping level, HF concentration, etching current, anodic potential, temperature, etc.) are properly adjusted. The optimal conditions are only a very tiny part of the total parametric space, which requires a fine control of the process. For example, HF concentrations higher than 10 wt.%, which are commonly used for growing micro- and mesoporous films, are not suitable for growing deep, straight macropores. Relatively high anodic potentials (e.g. even higher than 2 V for our samples) inevitably enhance the formation of spiking breakdowntype pores on macropore walls. On the other hand, low anodic potentials (less than 1 V) usually lead to unstable pore growth with macropores that are partially or fully filled with microporous silicon.<br/>Of all etching parameters the applied etching current is the most critical. Current densities greater than the critical current density Jps, which depends on the temperature and electrolyte concentration, will move the system into the electropolishing regime.<br/>Controlling the etching current during the process is a key issue. Keeping the etching current constant was found not to be sufficient to grow deep, straight macropores. Two effects that influence the pore shape in depth were identified. First, the decrease in HF concentration towards the pore tips because of diffusional limitations leads to an increase of the pore diameter close to the tip. Second, the pore surface area increases for long anodization times, which leads to an increase in the dark current density and yields conical pores, the diameter of which decreases with depth. Increasing the etching current accordingly, which means to etch pores with the reverse conical shape is one of the methods to reduce the pore conicity. Performing the etching at lower temperatures and bubbling the electrolyte with nitrogen can reduce the dark current and produce less conical pores. Another effective way is to use appropriate surfactants. Surfactants are commonly used to prevent degeneration caused by bubbles sticking to the sample surface. Two surfactants of different types (nonionic TritonX-100 and anionic SDS) were tested. We found that the addition of nonionic surfactants increases the dark current contribution and thus enhances the formation of conical pores. On the other hand, the use of anionic surfactants considerably reduces the dark current and straight pores can be formed almost without difficulty. Highly uniform macropore arrays with different arrangements and dimensions were obtained by applying these 'compensation' rules.<br/>Finally, we have also presented some preliminary results of our work on novel applications of macroporous silicon. The structural features of the etched macropore arrays have been exploited to fabricate high-aspect-ratio silicon dioxide pillars, which may have applications in biotechnology as a 3D sensor platform for molecular recognition detections or as dense arrays of microsyringes for fluid delivery or precise chemical reaction stimulation. We have also fabricated a macroporous filter consisting of through-wafer pores and measured its optical characteristics. For light incidence parallel to the pores, a shortpass spectral behavior has been observed. The obtained results are only qualitative and suggest that further optimization of the etching process is needed in order to produce higher quality samples. We were also able to introduce periodic modulations of the pore diameter in depth and to fabricate ratchet-type macropore arrays, which have been envisioned for applications as ratchet devices for large-scale particle separation. We have shown that by a few post-etching steps the modulated macropore arrays can be converted into microstructures consisting of interconnected voids in all three dimensions. The technique used can be exploited for the fabrication of fully 3D photonic crystals.
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